V praxi sa uplatňujú 3 metódy výpočtu HDP

A. Výrobná metóda výpočtu HDP: vyjadruje súčet pridanej hodnoty, dane z pridanej hodnoty a čistých daní na dovoz. Pridaná hodnota znamená, že v každej etape výroby sa do HDP započíta len tá hodnota, ktorá bola v konkrétnej výrobnej etape k hodnote daného statku pridaná. Vypočítame ju ako rozdiel medzi tržbami a nákladmi vynaloženými na nákup surovín, materiálov, služieb a energie – medziproduktov – od iných firiem.

B. Produktová – výdavková metóda výpočtu HDP: vyjadruje HDP z pohľadu výdavkov spojených s jeho realizáciou a je súčtom výdavkov domácností na osobnú spotrebu tovarov a služieb, súkromných hrubých domácich investícií podnikov, výdavkov štátu a čistého exportu – NX. Toto vyjadrenie sa dá zapísať ako HDP = C + I + G + NX

Sektory podieľajúce sa na HDP môžeme rozdeliť na dve ekonomiky:

a) Uzatvorenú – sídlo a centrum ich rozhodovaní a záujmov domácich subjektov v danej krajine
b) Otvorenú – zahraničné subjekty

Uzatovrená ekonomika

Domácnosti: vystupujú jako spotrebitelia (vlastníci výrobných faktorov práce, pôdy a kapitálu), ktorí uspokojujú svoje potreby prostredníctvom trhu, kde vystupujú jako kupujúci. Príjmy domácností nazývame dôchodkami. Sú to mzdy, renta, dividendy, zisky, úroky, alebo aj príjmy do štátu vo forme starobných, invadlidných dôchodkov, či podpory v nezamestnanosti, resp. úrídavkov na deti. Tieto príjmy domácnosti rozdeľujú na nákup tovarov krátkodobej a dlhodobej spotreby, na služby a na úspory. Označujeme ich teda ako spotrebiteľský subjekt – v angličtine C (consumcion).

Firmy: sú vlastne podniky, v ktorých prebiehajú ekonomické, sociálne a výrobno – technické procesy, ktorých cieľom je vyrobiť určitý produkt, alebo poskytnúť službu pre trh. Kupujú si od domácností výrobné faktory, platia im za ich používanie vo forme mzdy, renty a úrokov, no zároveň im prostredníctvom trhu predávajú statky a služby, čím získavajú tržby z predanej produkcie a z tých zase odvádzajú dane do ŠR. Nadobudnuté úspory umiestňujú na kapitálový trh, aby ich premenili na investície, preto sú označované jako subjekt investícií – v angličtine I (investment)

Investíciami sú:

Hrubé investície – zahŕňajú obnovovacie investície (I0) a čisté (netto alebo rozvojové investície) (Ič), kedy platí, že I = Io + Ič

Obnovovacie investície – predstavujú výdavky na vylepšenie investičných statkov

Čisté investície – zahŕňajú výdavky na nákup nových investičných statkov Vypočítajú sa potom ako rozdiel medzi hrubými investíciami a odpismi, pričom sa vychádza z predpokladu, že odpisy sa rovnajú obnovovacím investíciám.

Štát: je špecifickým trhovým subjektom. Reguluje centrálne, miestne a zákonodarné inštitúcie a to :

Pomocou rozpočtových príjmov a výdajov , akými sú napríklad dane, či peňažné fondy
Ovplyvňuje úverové možnosti komerčných bánk , napríkad určením diskontnej sadzby, či povinné min. rezervy
Reguluje ceny a mzdy
Usmerňuje dovoz a vývoz prostredníctvom cla a ďaľších opatrení (podpora exportu)

Príjmami štátu do štátneho rozpočtu sú : dane, povinné platby soc. a zdravotných zabezpečení a príjmy zo splácania úverov a pôžičiek.

Výdavkami štátneho rozpočtu sú : transferové platby (štát za ne nezískava žiadnu protihodnotu) do poisťovní, školstva, zdravotníctva, kultúry; transfery podnikateľským subjektom a štátnym fondom; verejná spotreba ako sú súdy, prokuratúra, krajské a okresné úrady, obrana…; kapitálové výdavky obciam; úvery a pôžičky.
Štát – vládu označujeme ako G (goverment)

Otvorenú ekonomiku tvorí sektor:

Zahraničie: je dôležitým odberateľom domácich výrobkov a služieb, kedy ide o export a zároveň domáce podniky dovážajú tovary a služby zo zahraničia, kedy hovoríme o importe.
Označujeme ho jako NX (export-import)

C. Dôchodková – príjimová metóda výpočtu HDP: použitie dôchodkovej metódy výpočtu HDP znamená, že výkonnosť ekonomiky sa meria aj vyjadruje pomocou dôchodkov (príjmov) jednotlivých subjektov, ktoré získavajú za služby výrobných faktorov.

Sú to:
hrubé mzdy a iné zamestnanecké príjmy
– čisté úroky ako rozdiel medzi úrokmi získanými subjektom a úrokmi platenými iným subjektom
– renty ako dôchodky vlastníkov pôdy
– hrubý zisk firiem
– dôchodky zo samozamestnávania, čiže živnostníci, roľníci a všetci tí, ktorí nie sú zapísaní v OR
– amortizácia
– nepriame dane

Z makroekonomickej kategórie HDP možno odvodiť ďalšie veličiny, ktoré umožňujú presnejšie meranie výkonnosti ekonomiky:

Čistý domáci produkt (ČDP): v angličtine označovaný jako NDP (net domestics product) a vyjadruje čisté investície, ktoré rozširujú množstvo existujúcich investičných statkov, ale nezahŕňa investície, ktoré sa použili na nákup spotrebovaných a opotrebovaných investičných statkov.Tieto voláme Obnovovacie investície. Čistý domáci produkt teda vypočítame, ak od HDP odpočítame amortizáciu.
ČDP = HDP – amortizácia

Čistý národný produkt (ČNP): v angličtine označovaný jako NNP (net national product) a vypočítame ho nasledovne: ČNP = HNP – amortizácia

Národný dôchodok (ND): v angličtine označovaný jako NI (net income) – vyjadruje celkový dôchodok, ktorý získali vlastníci výrobných faktorov. Vypočítame ho tak, že od ČDP vypočítaného dôchodkovou metódou odpočítame nepriame dane: ND = HDP – amortizácia – nepriame dane
Na Slovensku sa makroekonimická kategória národný dôchodk štatisticky nevykazuje.

Disponibilný dôchodok: v angličtine označovaný jako DY – je úroveň dôchodku, ktorý majú domácnosti k dispozícii na výdavky a úspory. Vypočítame ho nasledovne:

GY = HDP + čistý dôchodkov výrobných faktorov zo zahraničia – amortizácia – nerozdelené zisky
+ tansfery – dane

Čistý ekonomický blahobyt: v angličtine označovaný jako NEW, je upravený ukazovateľ HDP, zahŕňa len také položky spotreby a investícií, ktoré priamo prispievaú k ekonomickému blahobytu, kde je zahrnutý: voľný čas, tieňová ekonomika, škody zo znečistenia. Vypočítame ho nasledovne:

NEW = HDP + hodnota voľného času + hodnota tieňovej ekonomiky – hodnota škôd zo znečistenia

Ekonomický rast

Ekonomický rast: predstavuje také zmeny v hospodárstve, ktoré sa prejavujú na prírastku základných makroekonomických veličín v čase. Od ekonomického rastu a od celkovej úrovne HDP závisí výkonnosť ekonomiky, rozvoja krajiny a kvality života obyvateľov. Z tohto hľadiska rozlišujeme:
– Nominálny HDP
– Reálny HDP
– Skutočný HDP
– Potenciálny HDP

Nominálny HDP: vyjadruje a meria hodnotu výstupu v danom časovom období v trhových cenách tohoto obdobia, tzn. bežných trhových cenách. To znamená, že sa každoročne mení, tak, jako sa menia aj výstupy statkov a služieb, či bežné trhové ceny v dôsledku inflácie. Neposkytuje objedtívny údaj o výkonnosti ekonomiky a tempe ekonomického rastu a je vždy vyšší jako reálny HDP.

Reálny HDP: vyjadruje a meria hodnotu výstupu v danom časovom období v stálych cenách základného roka tak, že ocení všetky statky a služby vyrobené v rôznych časových obdobiach rovnakými cenami základného roka.
Reálny HDP koriguje nominálny HDPa tak vytvára stále meradlo HDP v priebehu dlhšieho časového obdobia. Na vyjadrenie takéhoto meradla potrebujeme cenový index.

Cenový index – je pomer v peniazoch vyjadrených tovarov a služieb za dané obdobie voči tomu istému ukazovateľovi, ale v základnom období. Při indexoch pracujeme s cenami (P) a množstvom (Q), pričom dolný index 0 znamená ukazovateľ základného obdobia a dolný index 1 ukazovateľ bežného obdobia. Najčastejšie indexy sú:

a) index spotrebiteľských cien (consumer price index – CPI) – vyčísľuje zmenu cenovej úrovne tovarov a služieb pre danú typickú domácnosť zvyčajne rôznych skupín obyvateľstva. Spotrebný kôš sú tovary a služby.

b) index výrobcov (product price index – PPI) – vyčísľuje sa pre rôzne odvetvia a odbory jako index cien výrobcov v priemysle, poľnohospodárstve atď… Spotrebný kôš sú v tomto prípade výrobky a služby. Platí, že vývoj PPI signalizuje nadchádzajúce zmeny v CPI

c) deflátor HDP alebo HNP (implicit price deflator – IPD) – vypočítava sa jako pomer nominálneho HDP a reálneho HDP v danom roku, vzhľadom na zmeny v cenách všetkých tovarov a služieb v danej ekonomike.

Potenciálny HDP: predstavuje najvyššiu možnú úroveň reálneho HDPa takú úroveň ekonomiky, kedy sa všetky výrobné zdroje, ktoré ekonomika má, plne využívajú. Takáto úroveň sa dá dosiahnuť vtedy, ak je v krajine prirodzená miera nezamestnanosti a zároveň stabilná cenová hladina, čiže nízka miera inflácie.

Skutočný HDP: vypočítava sa pomocou produktovej a dôchodkovej metódy a líši a do potenciálneho HDP tým, že nedosahuje plného využitia zdrojov (práce, pôdy a kapitálu). Môže klesať – kedy hovoríme o recesii – vtedy sa znižuje využitie výrobných činiteľov v ekonomike a tak aj skutočný produkt klesá. Naopak môže aj stúpať. Vtedy sa miera využitia zdrojov zvýši.

Magický štvoruholník

Magický štvoruholník je vyjadrením výkonnosti ekonomiky. Čím je štvoruholník väčší, tým je ekonomika výkonnejšia. Sleduje predovšetkým štyri ciele:

– Ekonomický rast – priemerné ročné tempo rastu HDP (G)
– Plná zamestnanosť – priemerná ročná miera nezamestnanosti (U)
Cenová stabilita – priemerná ročná miera inflácie (P)
– Vonkajšia rovnováha – rovnováha platobnej bilancie (B)

V realite je len ťažko možné dosiahnuť splnenie všetkých cieľov súčasne, možno voliť medzi väčším naplnením jedného cieľa a menším naplnením iného cieľa.

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